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RELIGION
AND SCIENCE: SHARED RESPONSIBILITIES
Human
affairs, directly or indirectly, are
affected by science in many ways.
Firstly, by the technological aids
enabled by science which have
transformed the way people live all over
the world so completely that it is
difficult to imagine any other way of
arranging our lives. Secondly, human
life has been affected by the influence
of science on the mind of man. We no
longer believe in those superstitions
that, from time to time in the long
history of mankind, darkened the world.
What
is the goal of science?
The
goal of science is to discover rules
which explain the relationship between
particular events and aspects of events
in the natural world which we usually
refer to as ‘facts’. More
specifically, the goal is to find the
simplest rules, and thereby to
understand the mastermind behind the
wonderfully subtle design of our
universe. Because understanding those
rules enables a degree of predictive
power, science can give us power over
the forces of nature operative in the
relationships we study. Unfortunately,
science can teach us nothing else beyond
how the facts are related and
conditioned by each other. The
aspiration towards such objective
knowledge belongs to the highest of
which human reason is capable. Yet it is
very clear that knowledge of what ‘is’
does not open the door directly to what
‘should be’ (Einstein, p.26). We can
have the clearest and most complete
knowledge of what ‘is’, yet we are
not able to deduce from that what the
goal of our human aspiration should be.
Objective knowledge provides us with
very powerful instruments for the
achievements of certain ends, but the
ultimate goal itself and the longing to
reach it must come from another source.
No doubt, our existence and activities
acquire meaning only by the setting up
of such a goal and corresponding values.
‘The knowledge of truth itself is very
little capable of acting as a guide and
it cannot prove even the justification
and the value of aspiration towards that
very knowledge of truth. Here we face,
therefore, the limit of the purely
rational concept of our existence’
(ibid., p.22).
Science
without religion, religion without
science
Throughout
history, great scientists have puzzled
over questions like-where the ethics of
using science will come from, how we can
decide what should be our goal or what
way, ultimately, is the best way for all
human beings to be. Great philosophers
as well as great scientific geniuses
have been bewildered by these questions.
In the long search to answer them, some
great scientists like Einstein have
expressed their understanding memorably:
‘Science without religion is lame,
religion without science is blind.’
On
the basis of his own very rich
experience, Einstein claimed that
science can only be created by those who
are thoroughly imbued with the
aspiration towards truth and
understanding. He clearly stated that
the source of such feelings lies within
the sphere of religion. He also
advocated that kind of faith which says
that the rules valid for the world of
existence are rational, that is,
comprehensible to reason. Einstein could
never conceive of a true scientist
without this profound belief. On the
other hand, in his famous essay Atomic
War or Peace, Einstein captures the
helplessness of the scientist to
influence moral judgments:
The
atomic scientists, I think, have become
convinced that they cannot arouse the
American people to the truth of the
atomic era by logic alone. There must be
added the deep power of emotion which is
the basic ingredient of religion.
(Einstein, p.22)
For
more than three centuries, the world has
gradually come to be dominated by
Western culture, lifestyle and modes of
thinking. At the present time, the world
is, directly or indirectly, influenced
so much by the West that the
contribution of other cultures to the
mainstream of world life is relatively
negligible. So, when we talk about the
modern approach to science we can,
without hesitation, discuss the Western
approach as the sole representative.
Does
scientific knowledge need religion?
There
is no doubt that scientific knowledge
needs religion in order to become a
blessing for mankind. Many times in
history a number of scientists came to
realize this but some of them were at a
loss when they encountered a serious
conflict between their faith and the
results of their scientific
investigations. The universal moral idea
of a quest for objective knowledge owed
its original psychological potency to
the link with religion. Yet in another
sense this close link was extremely
fatal for moral ideas. The enormous
growth of natural science had a great
influence on the thought and practical
life of man. Looking at what happened in
the Western world, we see that the
gradual increase in the cultivation of
science resulted in a gradual decrease
in the moral sentiment of people, in
their attachment to religion. As a
general phenomenon, this happened
uniquely in the West although there had
been a few, comparable individual
incidents in the Islamic civilization
also.
When
Copernicus and Kepler had to face the
moment of truth, they chose a road which
apparently was not that of their
religion. They felt that they had to
state what appeared to be the real case,
and that, on the whole, it would be more
respectful of the Divine wisdom to act
thus. By doing so, they served the
intellectual integrity of mankind. Their
standing against religion-at a time when
the modern scientific spirit was still
in its infancy in the West-in order to
save the truth was a great blow to the
dignity of Western religion. Since then,
there has been an apparently
irreconcilable conflict between
knowledge and belief, and most of the
advanced minds were increasingly of the
opinion that belief should be replaced
by knowledge. Belief that did not itself
rest on knowledge was considered
superstitious. This mentality, no doubt,
gave birth to a negative way of thinking
about religion. But the problem was
older than the rise of science. The root
of Western belief was Judeo-Christianity
and, long before the birth of science in
the modern Western world, because of
corruptions and interpolations in its
Scriptures, the basic principles of
Judeo-Christian belief had become so far
removed from, so irrelevant to, the
realities of nature and human affairs,
that the religion lost the right to
claim any authority over knowledge.
Barbarization
of political and collective life
As
there is, traditionally, a correlation
between religion and morals, in the last
few hundred years or so a serious
weakening of moral thought and sentiment
occurred. This has been the main cause
of the barbarization of political and
collective life in recent times. The
barbarization, together with the
terrifying efficiency of new
technological means, has posed a fearful
threat for human well-being.
In
the beginning of the seventeenth century
when the West started to study nature
independently, religion started to lose
its influence on society. There was some
effort to separate off, to secularize,
the whole domain of science, but in the
long run, knowingly or unknowingly,
science became an enemy of religion
which lost its esteem among enlightened
people. In time, great scientific
geniuses arose without any knowledge of
religion or moral values. Owing to the
great many contradictions in the
religious reasoning in the West, the
subtle influence of religious sentiments
started to dry up in the mind of great
scientists. Too many contradictory
theories tried to explain the world.
This is how science became (in Einstein’s
sense of the term) ‘blind’ in the
West: all means prove but a blunt
instrument if they have not behind them
a living spirit.
The
Western world has for long concentrated
its intellectual energies upon the study
of the quantitative aspect of things and
thus developed a science of physical
nature. The very obvious fruits of this
study in the physical domain have won
the greatest respect for it among people
everywhere.
Most
Western people identified science with
technology and its application. They
acquired the power of technology and
used it to make life more comfortable
and secure, to liberate themselves from
the forces of nature, but science
contributed hardly anything at all to
the moral or spiritual improvement of
Western people. But, as the very success
of this science had helped people to
dismiss religion as incapable of guiding
rational thought, no authoritative
source remained to guide people towards
noble actions or aspirations. Thus, in
the West, science and technology became
tools with which to dominate the rest of
mankind, to uproot the people of many
lands, to humiliate or destroy local
cultures and beliefs, to altogether
replace long-established social and
economic structures, with the result
that many indigenous peoples were
deprived of dignity, self-confidence and
direction. The effects of these policies
are visible everywhere.
Exploitation
of humankind by a scientifically
well-equipped minority
This
century has witnessed the exploitation
of the majority of human beings in the
world by a scientifically well-equipped
minority who believed that it is their
hereditary right to control the whole
world. This powerful minority was not
without discord among its own members
whose conflicts have caused unparalleled
sufferings for all of the world’s
inhabitants. Two world wars, aided by
the most brilliant technological
advances, not only destroyed millions of
human lives, they also deepened cynicism
and hastened the disappearance of
traditional moral values in many parts
of the world, not only in the West. It
cannot be denied that the power of
Western science is (whatever any
individual scientist may think or wish)
very definitely on the side of a
monstrously uneven distribution of world
assets. Scientists say that three times
as many people as are living today could
easily be fed if technology were
generously distributed and used properly
everywhere. But the real scene is
frustratingly different-millions die of
hunger, malnutrition or very simple
diseases; millions remain uneducated and
live in miserable poverty with very
little reason to hope for or expect
improvement.
People
thought that boundless material
prosperity is sure to bring heavenly
ease on earth, but in fact it caused
endless complexities and painful
degradation of human life. Science gave
us power to communicate over long
distances, to see the once unseen, to go
where no human being could ever go
before. But it took away our ease of
mind and heart, serenity, damaged the
aesthetic sense, turning us more or less
into trivialized emotionless, mechanized
creatures embarrassed to aspire to more
than transient worldly pleasure or
glory.
Too
many theories about life are around in
modern times, many of them so
contradictory that people no longer
believe that there can be any stable or
consistent account of what is good and
true, upon which to base a code of
conduct. Man questions everything
related to life. But he does not know,
from within his own finite abilities,
what he can find out about and what he
cannot. There are some questions that
arise in the human mind in response to
which nothing absolutely true can be
said using only human reasoning. Only
religion can tell us something, give us
some guidance, on such questions.
Science
can (and should) ascertain only what ‘is’
but not what ‘should be’
In
the West, even those people who think
that religion should be given a very
esteemed position in society, are not
ready to allow it to dominate all
aspects of life. They think that science
can (and should) ascertain only what ‘is’
but not what ‘should be’. Religion,
on the other hand, can (and should) deal
only with the moral evaluation of human
thoughts and action: it cannot
justifiably speak of facts or
relationships between facts. They
suppose conflict to arise when a
religious community insists on the
literal or whole truthfulness of
statements recorded in its Scriptures-in
this case, the Bible. This is where the
struggle of the Church against the
doctrine of Galileo and Darwin belongs.
On the other hand, representatives of
science have often attempted to arrive
at fundamental judgments with respect to
values and ends on the basis of
scientific methods and they too made
themselves severe opponents of formal
religion (Einstein, p.22).
Islamic
approach to science
We
turn now to discuss the Islamic approach
to science, to its understanding of the
relationship between natural laws (the
truths that modern science believes
itself competent to inquire into) and
the truths of religion which, in Islam,
while mediated by Revelation, are
nonetheless accessible to reason,
intelligible.
In
order to understand the essential spirit
of Islam, an understanding of some of
its fundamental principles, of its
uniqueness, of the strong influence it
has over Muslim hearts and minds, of its
vision of the ultimate goals of human
life in this world and the Hereafter, is
extremely necessary. However, it must be
admitted at the outset that it is
difficult to express these ideas,
strange to readers who are used to
another way of thinking, in modern
terms. To grasp the essential spirit of
Islam, it is enough to recognize that
God is One and that the Prophet, upon
him be peace and blessings, the
recipient and means of Revelation and a
symbol of all creation, was sent by Him.
Islam
may be said to have three levels of
meaning. All beings in the universe are
Muslim in the broadest sense, that is,
they are surrendered (subject) to the
Divine Will. Secondly, all men who will
to accept the Revelation of the Qur’an
and follow the teaching and example of
the Prophet (Sunna) are Muslim in the
formal sense that they surrender their
will to the sacred law (Qur’an and
Sunna). Then, thirdly, there is Islam of
the level of pure knowledge and
understanding. This is the contemplative
level which has been recognized
throughout Islamic history as the
highest, most inclusive level of
submission, when a Muslim completely
surrenders to God and ‘reflects’ the
Divine Intellect according to his or her
own degree. Thus, it should be clear, in
Islam, ‘knowledge’ and ‘science’
are conceived in a way basically
different from the contemporary Western
concept of outward curiosity about the
outer world and analytical speculation
to satisfy that curiosity.
The
arts and sciences in Islam are based on
the Unity which is at the heart of the
Revelation
The
arts and sciences in Islam are based on
the Unity which is at the heart of the
Revelation. Just as the great works of
Islamic arts like the Alhambra or the
mosques of Istanbul provide the patterns
through which one can contemplate the
Divine Unity manifesting itself in
multiplicity, so do all Islamic sciences
reveal the unity of nature (Nasr, 1964,
p.35).
The
aim of Islamic science as a whole, and
more generally speaking of all the
medieval and ancient cosmological
sciences, is to show the unity and
interrelatedness of all that exists, so
that, in contemplating the unity of the
cosmos man may be led to the Divine
principle, of which that unity is the
image.
The
aim of Islamic science
Unlike
Western science, Islamic science seeks
ultimately to attain such knowledge as
will contribute towards the spiritual
perfection and deliverance of anyone
capable of studying it, so its fruits
are inward and hidden, its values are
more difficult to discern. To understand
it one is required to place oneself
within its perspective and accept that
it has different means from those of
modern science. Although Islamic science
did not bring about the degree (or,
happily, the kind) of material
prosperity and insatiable desire in
society which modern science has brought
about, its contributions in mathematics,
physics, medicine, geology, geography,
architecture, irrigation, medicine, or
chemistry, are by no means
negligible-more important, all were
ultimately aiming to relate the
corporeal world to its basic spiritual
principles through knowledge.
The
fundamental principles of Islamic
science are also at variance with those
of Western science in many other
respects. Islam says that nature itself
is a fabric of symbols which must be
read and realized according to their
meaning. The Qur’an is the counterpart
of that text (nature) in human language.
Both nature and Qur’an speak about the
Power of the Almighty and Divine Unity.
Understanding of His Power is very
closely related with the profound
understanding of His creation.
Unlike
other religious Scriptures, the Qur’an
encourages all Muslims to read and
understand nature
Unlike
other religious Scriptures, the Qur’an
encourages all Muslims to read and
understand nature. The Qur’an provides
hints, discusses some basic concepts of
science and claims all its verses to be
absolutely true. The well-known writer,
Maurice Bucaille, acknowledged that the
Qur’an did not contain a single
statement that was assailable from a
modern scientific point of view. He
declared: ‘The relationship between
the Qur’an and science is a priori a
surprise, especially as it turns out to
be one of harmony and not of discord’
(Bucaille, 1975, p.110). In fact, this
is the reason why no Muslim scientist
ever faced, on account of his science,
the kind of ‘crisis of faith’ or ‘moment
of truth’ as Copernicus or Galileo
did.
‘Believe
in order to understand’
Islamic
principles also say that science, human
knowledge in general, is to be regarded
as legitimate and noble only so long as
it is subordinated to Divine Wisdom.
Islamic scientists would agree with
Saint Bonaventure’s axiom: ‘Believe
in order to understand’. Like him,
they insisted that science can truly
exist only in conjunction with Divine
Wisdom. So an independent and purely
rationalist approach was never able to
dominate the mainstream of Islamic
scientific opinion. By contrast, the
Western world, under the influence of
increasing rationalism, went through a
series of actions and reactions-the
Renaissance, the Reformation and the
Counter-Reformation-such as never
occurred in the Islamic world. Being
free of any normative or spiritual value
and cut off from Divine Wisdom, the West
saw the rise of a new type philosophy
and science profoundly different from
their medieval antecedents. Europe in
that period began to develop a science
of nature that concerned itself only
with the quantitative and material
aspects of things.
We
discussed the principles and general
approach of Islam towards science, we
turn now to the major sources of
inspiration for the cultivation of
science in the mind of a Muslim
scientist. Dr Muhammad Aijazul Khalid of
Damascus University says that, ‘In
contrast to 250 verses which are
legislative, some 750 verses of Holy Qur’an-almost
one-eighth of the whole- exhort the
believers to study nature, to reflect,
to make the best use of reason and to
make the scientific enterprise an
integral part of the community’s life’.
Here is one representative example of
such verses:
You
do not see in the creation of the
All-Merciful any imperfection;
return your gaze, do you see any
flaw? Then return your gaze again
and again. Your gaze comes back to
you dazzled and weary .
(67.3-4)
This
in a sense is the faith of all
scientists, the faith which most
strongly inspires them. The deeper a man
seeks, the more is his wonder excited,
the more his gaze (perceptive and
comprehending faculties) returns to him
dazzled. Everywhere in the Qur’an we
feel an obligation towards knowledge and
science when we read verses like these:
Behold!
in the creation of the heavens and
earth and the alternation of night
and day-there are indeed signs for
men of understanding
(3.190)
We
created not the heavens, the earth
and all between them merely in
idle sport (44.38)
In
his book New Researches into
Composition and Exegesis of the Qur’an,
Dr Hartwig Hirschfeld says:
We
must not be surprised to find the
Qur’an the fountainhead of
sciences. Every subject connected
with heaven or earth, human life,
commerce and various trades is
occasionally touched upon and this
gave rise to the production of
numerous monographs forming
commentaries on parts of the Holy
Book. In this way the Qur’an was
responsible for great discussions,
and to it was indirectly due the
marvelous development of all
branches of science in the Muslim
world. This again not only
affected the Arabs, but also
induced Jewish philosophers to
treat metaphysical and religious
questions after Arab methods.
(Hirschfeld, 1902)
Spiritual
activity once aroused within Islamic
bounds was not confined to theological
speculations alone. Acquaintance with
the philosophical, astronomical and
medical writings of the Greeks led to
the pursuance of these studies. In the
descriptive revelations Muhammad [salla-llahu
’alayhi wa sallam] repeatedly
calls attention to the movement of the
heavenly bodies, as parts of the miracle
of God forced into the service of man
and therefore not to be worshipped.
(ibid.)
Muslim
minds tried to find the physical
principles that govern the universe
because to do so is a part of their
obligatory worship. This is so clearly
stated in the Holy Book that when Islam
was in its golden age the practice of
science was very common in the society.
Brian Stock has remarked in his
perceptive review Science and Technology
and Economic Progress in the Early
Middle Ages: ‘The most remarkable
feature is . . . that science in one
form or another was the part-time or
full-time occupation of so a large a
number of intellectuals-most of these
men were not scientists, they were
universalists, physicians, astronomers,
lexicographers, poets and even
theologians at the same time.’
In
what way did Islam contribute to the
Renaissance?
In
the West, after the establishment of
Christianity, the Christian-dominated
West was sunk in barbarism. Yet two
centuries after the Prophet Muhammad,
upon him be peace and blessings, the
Islamic world under the Caliph Harun al-Rashid
was far more active culturally than the
contemporaneous world of
Charlemagne-although the latter started
earlier. At the time when restrictions
on scientific development were in force
in the Christian world, a very large
number of studies and discoveries were
being made at Islamic universities.
George Sarton, a professor in the
history of science at Harvard
University, stated in his book The
Life of Science that the foundations
of science were laid for us by the
Mesopotamian civilization (present-day
Iraq) whose scholars and scientists were
their priests. The second development in
science came through the Greeks. The
third stage of development, however, is
to be credited to the meteoric rise of
Islam. For nearly four hundred years
Islam led the scientific world as, from
Spain to India, the great body of past
knowledge was exchanged between Muslim
scholars and carried forward with new
discoveries and new ideas. Scholars in
Christendom, from about the eleventh
century, were mainly occupied for over
two hundred years in translating from
Arabic into Latin. Thus Islam paved the
way for the European Renaissance, which
in turn led to science’s fourth great
development in the modern world (Sarton,
1971, pp.146-66).
For
the very first time science took on an
international character in the Islamic
universities of the Middle Ages. At that
time Muslims were more steeped in the
religious spirit than they are today;
but that did not inhibit, still less
prevent, the best minds of the age from
being both believers and scientists.
Scientific knowledge was the twin of
religious knowledge and it should never
have ceased to be so.
In
this century, most of the reformers of
the Muslim world tried to preach the
full message of the Qur’an, they did
not exhort the Muslims to only religious
knowledge. They understood that because
of serious neglect of science, the
Muslims had ceased to occupy the
intellectual mainstream and thus
gradually lost their ideological, social
and political superiority. The great
Turkish scholar Bediuzzaman Said Nursi
asserted that the success of the
contemporary Muslims in exalting God’s
Word will be proportional to their
advances in science, technology and
civilization. He indicated the
importance of science by saying: ‘For
the Muslims it is a great adventure that
the West has acquired science and
knowledge, and Islam can therefore
appeal to them more easily than at any
time before’ (Nursi, 1960, p.78). In
fact, Bebiuzzaman Said Nursi can be
offered as an example of a true, devout
Muslim whose love for science is stated
in his beautiful expression: ‘There is
a tendency in the cosmos towards
perfection. Thus the creation of the
cosmos follows the law of perfection’
(Nursi, 1977, p.13).
Mentality
of world-dominating powers: ‘What is
yours is ours and what is ours is ours’
Developed
countries in the world are now playing a
great monopoly game over the resources
and riches of the earth. Newton, Maxwell
or other geniuses are being used as the
private intellectual property, the
cultural heritage of the West. ‘Even
though the developing countries need the
help of industrialized countries to
overcome the economic and ecological
problems they face, the latter do not
intend to share with the third world ‘their’
intellectual resources; in other words
they refuse to transfer technology and
know-how, however great the need for it
. . . Their mentality is-what is yours
is ours and what is ours is ours’ (Sayar,
1992).
By
contrast, when, in Cordova the Arab
built the first university in Europe,
knowledge spread throughout Europe from
Muslim sources. In the prestigious
scientific journal, Nature, of 24th
March 1983, Francis Ghiles raised the
question: ‘What is wrong with Muslim
science? . . . At its peak about one
thousand years ago the Muslim world made
a remarkable contribution to science,
notably mathematics and medicine.
Baghdad in its heyday and southern Spain
built universities to which thousand
flocked: rulers surrounded themselves
with scientists and artists. A spirit of
freedom allowed Jews, Christians and
Muslims to work side by side.’
Scientific
enterprise in Islam was of an
international character. Muslim society
was very tolerant of men from outside
it, and of their ideas. Al-Kindi wrote:
‘It is fitting then for us not to be
ashamed to acknowledge truth and to
assimilate it from whatever source it
comes to us. For him who scales the
truth there is nothing of higher value
than truth itself; it never cheapens or
abases him who seeks’. So the goal of
Muslim scientists was revealing the
truth, not exploiting mankind by the use
of it, as has been done by Western
nations in recent centuries. The Muslims
thought it to be a common heritage of
mankind.
In
this century, many influential Western
scientists understood that the approach
of their civilization towards science is
sure to lead the world to a catastrophe.
Many tried to find a solution and, just
in trying to do so, came closer to the
Islamic approach. Now many of them think
that religion should be given a chance
to make its impact on norms and
aspirations, while science and
technology are an evil instrument in the
hands of cynical Western
commercial-political interests.
In
the dark years of the Cold War, Einstein
said: ‘We, scientists, believe that
what we and our fellow-men do or fail to
do within the next few years will
determine the fate of our civilisation.
And we consider it our task untiringly
to explain this truth, to help people
realize all that is at stake, and to
work, not for appeasement, but for
understanding and ultimate agreement
between peoples and nations of different
views’. In 1990, at the Moscow meeting
of a global forum of spiritual and
political leaders, Carl Sagan (1990)
urged: ‘Mindful of our common
responsibility, we scientists, many of
us long engaged in combating the
environmental crisis, urgently appeal to
the world religious community to
[co-operate] in words and deeds, and as
boldly as required, to preserve the
environment of the earth.’
‘United
Field Theory’
This
religion-oriented approach is
increasingly referred to in the West.
For example, merely to understand how
nature works we do not need to unify the
fundamental forces-gravitational,
electromagnetic and strong nuclear. But
for the last thirty years of his life
Einstein tried to find a theory that
would do just that, called the ‘United
Field Theory’, though he did not
succeed. He had a deep faith that these
forces are different manifestations of
one and same entity. Again what Stephen
Hawking has sought for a lifetime is a
united and consistent theory that
encompasses all the mysteries of the
universe in a single set of equations.
He says: ‘Then we shall all,
philosophers, scientists and just
ordinary people, be able to take part in
the discussion of the question of why it
is that we and the universe exist. If we
find the answer to that, it would be the
ultimate triumph of human reason-for
then we would know the mind of God’
(Hawking, 1988, p.175).
Understanding
(or as Hawking puts it, reading) the ‘mind’
of God was one of the aims of the
glorious centuries of Islamic science.
That aim was the easier to pursue as it
was supported by the Qur’anic
revelation. And in future, God willing,
scientific curiosity will be wholly
motivated and guided by the Message of
God and the resulting science truly be a
blessing for mankind.
REFERENCES
Bucaille,
Maurice (1975) The Bible, The Qur’an
and Science, North American Trust
Publications, Indianapolis.
Einstein, A. Out of My Later Years,
Greenwood Press Publishers, Westport,
CT.
Hawking , Stephen W. (1988) A Brief
History of Time: From the Big Bang to
Black Holes, Bantam Press, London.
Nasr, Sayyed Hossein (1964) Science
and Civilisation in Islam, Harvard
University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
Nursi,
Bediuzzaman Said (1960) Hutbe-i
Şamiye, Sinan Matbaasi,
Istanbul.
Nursi,
Bediuzzaman Said (1960)(1977)
Muhakemat, Sozler Yayinevi,
Istanbul.
Sagan, Carl (1990) American Journal
of Physics, 58 (7) July, pp.15-19.
Sayar, M.A. (1990) ’Is Technology a
Common Heritage of Mankind’, The
Fountain, 1(2), pp.4-7.
Sarton, G. (1971) The Life of
Science: Essays in the History of
Civilisation, Books for Libraries
Press, Free Port, NY.
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